FROM THE THIRD GENEVA CONFERENCE ON PERSON-CENTERED MEDICINE: CONCEPTUAL
PERSPECTIVES
African approaches to an enriched ethics
of person-centred health practice
Werdie (CW) Van Staden MBChB MMed
(Psych) MD FC Psych (SA) FTCL UPLM
Nelson
Mandela Pofessor of Philosophy and Psychiatry, Editor-in-Chief South African
Journal of Psychiatry and Managing Editor, Philosophy, Ethics and
Humanities in Medicine, Division of Philosophy & Ethics of Mental
Health, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Abstract
‘Person-centred ethics’, containing
‘person’ in the singular, may suggest a commitment to individualism. This
paper, however, argues that a person-centred ethic need not be trapped in an a
priori commitment to liberal individualism or communitarianism, should one draw
on two related core African insights on 1) putting people first and 2) respect
for diversity.
“Batho pele” is a Sesotho expression that means “people first”.
It is closely connected to the rich concept of “ubuntu”, translated
incompletely as “in existence with and through others”. It champions both the
person and groups of persons by virtue of an interconnectedness expressed, for
example, in the isiZulu maxim “Unmuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu”, translated as “I am
because you are, and you are because we are”.
Putting people first in the ethics of health care has to
account for diversity, for diversity is an inevitable characteristic both among
individual persons and groups of people. To account for diversity in not
merely a general way, the diversity specific to both particular persons and
between groups of people in a particular situation and context needs to be
taken seriously. Accounting for diversity in this way guided by the ethics
“people first” and “ubuntu”, requires a process of shared decision making in
which all relevant values, including potential individualist and communitarian
values, are taken up in a substantive communicative process that creates in
partnership person and people-specific decisions for that very situation,
context, and time – a process captured in the African concept of an “indaba”.
Keywords
Individualism, communitarianism,
personal autonomy, diversity, values, communication
Correspondence Address
Professor C W Van Staden, Department
of Psychiatry, University of Pretoria, PO Box 667, Pretoria, 0001, South
Africa. E-mail: werdie.vanstaden@up.ac.za
Accepted for publication: 21 January
2011
Introduction
‘The ethics of person-centred
practice may seem to be invoking an a priori commitment to
individualism, making communal considerations at best secondary to that of the
individual. I argue in this paper, however, that two core values underscored
in African ways of doing provide for an enriched ethics of person-centred
health practice that is not so committed. These two values are: putting persons
(in plural and singular) first and respect for diversity.
Putting persons (plural & singular) first in
health practice
The connection between
person-centred practice and health ethics may be thought to be about the
principle of having respect for personal autonomy – that is, one of the four
principles of bioethics championed by Beauchamp & Childress [1]. Similarly,
one may take person-centred practice to be about the rights, interests and
values of the individual and if the commitment is to liberal individualism, one
may consider societal or other collective interests and values as being of
secondary concern. A liberal individualist commitment may even mean that
person-centred practice may operate potentially at the expense of societal and
other collective values. Similarly, in deontological terms, one may take
person-centred practice in health ethics to be about the duties accruing in
serving particularly the individual. Or in utilitarian terms, one may take it
to be about the good and bad consequences for particularly the individual.
Person-centred practice enriched by African thoughts does
not presuppose that ethical priority resides with the individual. An African
thought akin to person-centred practice is that of “batho pele”, which is a
Sesotho expression meaning “people first” [2-4]. At first glance, being in the
plural (that is, “people” rather than “person”), “batho pele” may appear as if
to suggest that ethical priority resides with societial or other collective
interests. “Batho pele” may accordingly be thought of as being closer to
communitarianism in which communal values take priority above individual values.
“Batho pele”, however, is not committed to an ethical priority that resides
either in the individual or in the society. Rather, it should be understood as
being part of a particular way of living, thinking and feeling about yourself
and others in ordinary discourse. That is, a way expressed by “ubuntu” .
“Ubuntu” may be incompletely translated as “in existence with and through
others”. The isi-Zulu maxim “unmuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” elucidates this
further, translated as “I am because you are, and you are because we are”.
Accordingly, “ubuntu” and “unmuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” champion both the person
and society by virtue of an interconnectedness [5-7].
“People first” in its “ubuntu” sense is compatible neither
with communitarianism in which the values of individual disappear, nor with
liberal individualism. It upholds the idea of respect for the personal (and by
implication, personal autonomy). This value is taken neither in isolation from
other values, nor as being necessarily more important than other values.
“People first” in its “ubuntu” sense requires deontologically that duties serve
both the individual and society. It differs, moreover, from Kantian deontology
in that duties of importance extend beyond those determined by common standards
[1]. Duties also include those determined by case-specific values, even if such
values are unique or in opposition to common standards. “People first” in its
“ubuntu” sense requires, furthermore, that consequences for both the individual
and society are considered as potentially important in deliberations. Where
utilitarianism would usually determine whether consequences are good or bad by
commonly acceptable standards [1], the notion of people first in ubuntu
requires that case-specific values, even if unique and unacceptable to others,
whether consequences would be good or bad, be considered too.
The question not yet addressed at this point is how does
“batho pele” and “ubuntu” circumvent giving a priori precedence to
either the individual or society? An answer to this question is underpinned by
the second value underscored in African thought: respect for diversity. That we
consider diversity is apt and paramount here, for diversity is an inevitable
characteristic both between people individually and between groups of people.
Respect for diversity
Respect for diversity is epitomized
in the motto expressed in South Africa’s National Coat of Arms as ‘!ke e:
/xarra //ke’ . Written in the Khoisan language, this literally means ‘Diverse
people unite’. The motto describes the diversities of various kinds among
the citizens and at the same time calls for the nation to unite in a common
sense of belonging and national pride – unity in diversity [8]. It defies,
however, the confusion between unity and uniformity, valuing the strength and
potential of diversity brought about by Nelson Mandela’s idea of a “rainbow
nation”. He, together with Mr F W de Klerk, won the Nobel prize for Peace
following their work in achieving a political revolution without the extensive
violence and destruction that are known to go with such – at the heart of which
was the replacement of racism with a core value of respect for diversity. This
is no small achievement, for South Africa has 11 official languages and even
more ethnic groups. Mr Mandela’s idea of a rainbow nation is apt considering
the proportions of the respective mother tongue speakers in the South African
population being as follows: isiZulu 23.8%; IsiXhosa 17.6%; Afrikaans 13.3%;
Sepedi 9.4%; Setswana 8.2%; English 8.2%; Sesotho 7.9%; Xitsonga 4.4%;
siSwati 2.7%; Thsivenda 2.3%; isiNdebele 1.6% [9].
In the domain of ethics, respect for diversity has
necessarily to do with values. Values of diverse kinds include cultural,
ethnic, spiritual, religious, societal, personal, institutional,
organisational, prescriptive, normative, legal, scientific, and aesthetic
values, also values of right and wrong, good (better, best) and bad (worse,
worst), etc [10]. On opposite sides of a continuum, some values are convergent
in almost all respects, whereas other values are anything but shared, even
being in direct conflict with one another. We share some values and for those
there is little if any dispute – for example, the value that murder is wrong.
About other values, we will never agree and neither should we – for example,
the aesthetic values that one attaches to a particular musical composition or a
painting. Divergent values are complex and varies from person to person, time
to time, place to place, culture to culture, society to society, etc.
Respect for diversity does not deny that shared values have
their appropriate place, but takes seriously the divergence of values. It
resists, accordingly, attempts to force legitimately different values to the
“right” values (for example, by virtue of “my”/ “our” authority, which would be
similar to a totalitarian coup), or by proclaiming inappropriate rules and
regulations. Respecting diversity call upon, furthermore, recognising that the
general or average view and even consensus may undermine diversity,
notwithstanding that the general or average view or consensus may serve the
convergent values well [11]. Similarly, forcing all values to be “equal”
undercuts respect for diversity at least insofar as it would boil down to the
anarchy in the “anything goes” of ethical relativism [12]. Respect for
diversity, furthermore, is a more modest point of departure than aspiring to
respecting (all) the values of people or respecting all people which may be too
tall an order even though laudable and desirable [11]. Accounting for diversity
also enriches health ethics beyond a health ethics merely constituted by agreed
principles and standards of right or wrong (conduct). Moreover, respect for
diversity creates a space where persons may be put first – person in both an
individual (singular) and societal (plural) sense.
How it is done practically: “People First” and “Respect
for Diversity”
There is a practical way
well-established in Africa to put people first and respect diversity. That is,
by means of an “indaba”. This isiZulu concept means “meeting” or “matter”. An
indaba is a meeting that is called to discuss a matter where everyone has a
voice and to create a common story to tell about the matter. Without giving a
priori precedence to either the individual or society, all of the values of
the role players in the matter are taken seriously - some may be personal, some
divergent, some societal, some cultural, or some shared in other ways [12].
The key activity here is skilful communication, but
communication of a substantive rather than merely executive kind. If
substantive, communication is a central purpose by itself rather than merely ‘the
means to an end’. It values the process of communication even more than
the resulting decisions. The communication is about the respective values
having bearing in a particular matter. In respecting diversity, the full
spectrum of values is accommodated and therefore necessarily those of all the
role players including personal values, societal and other collective values.
Communication skills are used multi-directionally in creating space for both
shared and divergent values. Listening and explaining, for example, are done by
all role players, aiming for all to understand.
Substantive communication guided by respect for diversity
and ubuntu, generates an attitude of establishing partnerships in making and
executing plans and decisions. Thus, even in the face of conflicting values,
the stance is that we may approach the differences between the values in
partnership. The opposition between the values need not translate into an
opposition between the bearers of those values. Rather, the benefits of an apposition
(i.e. being on the same side) between the role players instead would speak of
ubuntu even in the midst of their conflicting values. Thereby, ‘we’ versus
‘them’ is turned into ‘us’ – battles are turned into alliances in which the
variety of contributions is valued.
Respecting diversity and putting people first are not unique
values to Africa, however. Much of the approach of Values-Based Practice in
health ethics, championed by Bill (KWM) Fulford et al., is for example
similar [13]. Another example is the World Psychiatric Association’s insti-tutional
program on Psychiatry for the Person makes the person an active participant in
protecting him- or herself from illness, promoting and maintaining health, receiving
holistic health services and recovering from illness [14].
African-enriched health ethics – some contrasts
Putting people first and respecting
diversity in the spirit of ubuntu may be contrasted with other approaches in
health. An appealing and justifiable approach for health workers would be to
give priority to the health of a person, taking what is good for a person’s
health to be good for the person. Even when this is the case, the mistake would
be to assume that the converse is necessarily true, for what may be good for the
person is not necessarily good for his or her health. Putting people first may
require at times that a health worker participates in a decision that is good
for the person, even if not good for the person’s health. Thereby, the health
worker recognises in the collaborative decision making what is good for the
person is more important than what is good for his/her health. This kind of
person-centredness goes beyond a person-centredness suggested by respect for
personal autonomy, for in case of the latter the health worker may want to
distance him- or herself from a decision that is not putting someone’s health
first.
Putting people first and respecting diversity in the spirit
of ubuntu entails that decisions are to be made in partnerships between
health care worker and health care user, which contrasts with an ethics model
by which the health care worker(s) provides the information and “ultimately”
the health care user has to decide (as for example a predominantly rights-based
ethical approach may suggest). Making decisions by putting people first and
respecting diversity in the spirit of ubuntu, furthermore, means that the
ethical soundness of such decision should be judged by the process of decision
making rather than, as a strict utilitarian approach would require, merely the
outcome of the decision.
Conclusion
The ethics of person-centred health
practice need not be trapped in the a priori commitments of liberal
individualism or communitarianism. Rather, the African concepts of ubuntu
and batho pele together with respect for diversity, provide for an
enriched ethics of person-centred health practice – in which health ethics is
of much more substance than merely constituted by agreed principles (like
respect for personal autonomy) and standards of right or wrong (conduct).
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